Immune to snake venom, these animals will eat poisonous snakes such as rattlesnakes. [19] Striped skunks inhabiting California's coastal areas will feed on crabs and beached fish. A free roaming dog often aggravates the situation by chasing the prowling skunk. Female Striped Skunks give birth to six to eight babies once a year only during the month of May or June. Its scientific name, mephitis, in Latin means bad odor. [2], Striped skunks are known to use their sharp claws to tear apart rotting logs to find grubs, dig in the soil for insects, and pin down prey. Skunks seem to prefer slopes for den sites, probably because these areas drain well. Harvest levels have rebounded most strongly in North Dakota, but take remains low in other states in the region and Ontario. The most common skunks in North America, striped skunks are terrestrial animals that can survive in a variety of habitats and land types. This disagreeable musk is secreted by glands at the base of the tail and can be aimed and sprayed at will. Its tail is black, fluffy, and long. If cornered, the striped skunk will turn and confront its opponent, arching its back and displaying its long and bushy tail to make itself appear larger, followed by stamping its feet. [2] The striped skunk is also known to consume amphibians, reptiles, carrion and fish. Ears: 0.8 - 1.0 inches A mated female drives off males shortly after her three-day estrus period ends. Striped skunks at the Smithsonian's National Zoo consume a diet consisting primarily of leafy greens, vegetables and insects. Below, we have summarized the various classifications, monitoring, research, and contact information for each state alphabetically. Found up to about 2000 feet on the west side of the state. Choosing reusable options instead can help reduce plastic pollution. The Striped skunk has narrow white stripes located at the center of its face, which differ in length and width across individuals. Length: 14.0 - 22.0 inches Tail: 4.5 - 9.0 inches Ears: 1.0 - 1.1 inches Weight: 0.75 - 2.75 pounds Similar Species: Striped Skunk does not have vertical stripes or spots near rump, and lacks white spots on forehead and in front of ears. In fall and winter, skunks eat fruit such as wild grapes and cherries; small mammals such as moles, mice, voles and shrews; plant items such as grasses, leaves and buds; mast and carrion. Striped skunks can experience delayed implantation lasting up to 19 days. There is a high mortality rate among skunks; many do not survive beyond their first year. They typically inhabit areas with a mixture of dense vegetation and open areas. The skunk excels at this potential and can discharge a foul-smelling fluid as a means of defense. They have been observed living in wooded areas, deserts and plains, and have even adapted to urban and suburban environments. Striped skunks are classified as unprotected species in Minnesota. Description: A medium-sized, stout-bodied mammal with a small head, short legs, and a prominent, bushy tail. To a chemist, the spray consists of of four carbon and hydrogen compounds called thiols. And, like these two other mammals, skunks walk in a plantigrade manneron the soles of their feet with heels touching the ground. Gestation is for around 59 to 77 days, starting with delayed implantation that can be as long as 19 days. They can swim, but are poor climbers. This is a raster map of striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) distribution in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Their diet will vary depending on whats available during each season. They typically breed in the later winter or early spring, giving birth to a single litter of 1 - 6 young born in May or June. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striped_skunk, http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41635/0. The period of gestation for the female Striped Skunks lies between 59-77 days. There's no reason to specify; you will undoubtedly find a few skunks just by traveling up and down the eastern side of the state. Striped skunks can be found throughout Pennsylvania, but the highest densities are associated with agricultural areas. One wildlife host that purportedly plays a role in the transmission of Chagas disease within the southern United States is the striped skunk . Status in Tennessee: Striped Skunks may be abundant in certain areas, so there are no conservation concerns. Stink badgers are preyed upon by civets, cats, and humans. The novelty song "Dead Skunk" by Loudon Wainwright III was popular in the early 1970s. They have a long history of association with humans, having been trapped and captively bred for their fur and kept as pets. The striped skunk can be a difficult neighbor because of its fearlessness and effective weaponry. New England and Middle Atlantic States; south to Virginia; west to Indiana. Once the mating period has finished, the impregnated females confine themselves to their dens, while the males attempt to rebuild their fat reserves. It has sharp claws on its front webbed feet that it will use to dig for grubs, worms, and reptiles or amphibians, and that can aid them climbing trees in search of food. Perhaps the value of skunk musk to the perfume industry, combined with the commercial use of their pelts, caused early legislators to give skunks special consideration. Striped skunks live throughout North America from southern Canada into northern Mexico. The females will retreat to the den to give birth. Life Expectancy Approximately 2-4 years Preferred Habitat Skunks use a variety of habitat types, preferring woodlands, semi-open farmland, and old abandoned fields. However, that could change. Likewise for a homeowner or nuisance wildlife control agent who finds a skunk in the box trap set in the backyard. In warmer weather, they depend on insects such as grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles, crayfish, and worms, with occasional fruits and nuts. Eastern striped skunks are relatively common throughout the United States and can be found throughout Maryland. Regional records for the eastern spotted skunk suggest that this species extended its range northward into Minnesota in the early 1900s. Some populations, particularly in northwestern Illinois, prefer cultivated areas over uncultivated ones.[. Shores of Puget Sound and coastal region of Washington and northern Oregon. Skunk anal glands are responsible for the sulfur compounds that, when sprayed, form the pungent scent that is a skunks primary defense. They are slightly larger and their scent is not as strong as the Eastern Spotted Skunk's. Other summer foods include spiders, toads, frogs, lizards, snakes, mice, chipmunks and the eggs of turtles and ground-nesting birds. [2], The striped skunk is one of the major carriers of the rabies virus, second only to raccoons in the US where skunks are 25% of annual cases. The width of this stripe and the amount of white on the tail may vary from one skunk to another. They develop quickly. The striped skunk is actually a very successful species, with a range that occupies a large portion of North America, including southern Canada, northern Mexico, and most of the United States. Florida to North Carolina, and in the mountains to West Virginia; west on the Gulf coast to the Mississippi River. Cases of rabies in this species are generally epizootic and recurrent. The most frequently consumed insects include grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, caterpillars, other insect larvae and bees. Skunks are prey for raptors and larger mammal carnivores. They prefer open areas, with abundant populations observed on agricultural lands. Hunting and trapping are regulated by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, regulations. Tail length averaged 8.7 (221 mm), ranging from 6.3 to 11.4 (159-290 mm) in the Eastern United States, and ranged from 7.9 to 11.0 (200-280 mm) in Wisconsin. Rabies outbreaks have affected populations in Illinois. The striped skunk is a mostly nocturnal omnivore. Skunks are host to fleas, lice, mites, ticks and various internal parasites. Coleraine, MN 55722, Ermine (Short-tailed Weasel; Mustela erminea). [10] Although their musk is still undeveloped, kits of this age will instinctively assume the defensive stand position when threatened. They prefer open areas, with abundant populations observed on agricultural lands. The species has triangular shaped heads that taper to the nose, small round ears and black eyes. Of the 3 skunks that underwent necropsy on 3 dpi, 2 had infectious virus in the turbinates but not in other tissues tested. Skunks have poor eyesight and mostly hunt by nose and hearing, so it can be easy to startle one. These polka-dotted relatives are smaller, about the size of a fat squirrel, and do impressive handstands to warn predators before they launch their stinky spray. [16], The striped skunk inhabits a wide variety of habitats, particularly mixed woodlands, brushy corners and open fields interspersed with wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. Striped skunks are typically found at elevations below 5,900 feet (1,800 meters). Skunks are about the size of house cats, and have distinctive black and white fur patterns. Skunks have small heads, with small eyes and ears and a pointed nose. The striped skunk has been protected under the Environmental Conservation Law since the late 1800s. [2], While primarily an insectivore, the striped skunk is adaptable enough to incorporate other animals and even vegetable matter into its diet. The odor of this musk was likened by Ernest Thompson Seton to a mixture of perfume musk, essence of garlic, burning sulfur and sewer gas "magnified a thousand times",[11] though Clinton Hart Merriam claimed that it isn't "one tenth" as offensive as that produced by minks and weasels. This striped skunk caught a vole. Body weight ranged from 4.0 lb to 8.8 lb (1.8-4.0 kg) in Wisconsin. 1-Nov. 12; Sunday Nov. 13; Nov.14-Nov.19; Sunday Nov. 20; Nov. 21-Nov. 26; Sunday Nov. 27; Nov. 28-. Along with the woodchuck, raccoon, Canada goose, mourning dove, several species of blackbirds and other wildlife, the skunk prospers wherever humans clear land for farming and remove or drive out larger predators. It is currently listed as least concern by the IUCN on account of its wide range and ability to adapt to human-modified environments. When you become a member, you also receive exclusive benefits, like special opportunities to meet animals, discounts at Zoo stores and more. Male striped skunks breed with multiple females, and are rejected by the females after mating occurs. Striped skunks have black fur with a wide, white stripe from the head all the way down the back on the body. Its narrow face has a pointed snout, and small round ears. Since 1996, spotted skunks have been classified as threatened in Minnesota, and any sightings should be reported to Minnesota DNR. Newborns are helpless and rely completely on their mother. 2012. This type of regulatory protection has been successful. What they eat depends on where they live and what is available. Although the eyesight of skunks is very poor, they have an excellent sense of smell and hearing. As one of the most recognizable mammals anywhere, striped skunks are known for their black fur and characteristic white stripes on their head and down their back. Wildlife researchers have estimated an average of one skunk per 10 acres of prime habitat and 13.5 skunks per square mile of agricultural land. Protection and promoting general public awareness of a species is a good way to secure its status. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Their diet includes insects, fish, crustaceans, small mammals, fruits, nuts, grasses leaves, and carrion (dead animals). Without doubt, the most widely recognized characteristic of the Striped skunk is the pungent odor of the musk that it produces. [12] The forefeet are armed with five long, curved claws adapted for digging, while those on the hind feet are shorter and straighter. Conservation Ranks. Skunks are intelligent and usually good-natured. [13], The striped skunk is a stoutly-built, short-limbed animal with a small, conical head and a long, heavily furred tail. Nevertheless, raising skunks was considered good practice for amateur fur farmers wishing to later move on to more valuable furbearers like martens, sable, mink and silver foxes. Protect local waterways by using fewer pesticides when caring for your garden or lawn. Their diet is primarily insectivorous during the spring and summer seasons when grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, bees and other arthropods are abundant, then switches to a carnivorous diet during colder months. [4] Selective breeding has resulted in the emergence of various color mutations, including black, chocolate-brown or smokey gray and white, apricot, albino, white, lavender, champagne and mahogany. Skunks are vulnerable to a variety of internal and external parasites. However, these animals may still be harvested in most parts of Canada and the United States. Male total length ranged from 24.8 to 29.9 (630-760 mm) in Minnesota, and female total length ranged from 21.2 to 25.6 (540-650 mm) in Minnesota. Skunk fur is an important asset to the fur industry, with pelts with a greater percentage of black grading higher. Although it will forage for short periods in winter, it primarily depends on its fat reserves in cold weather, and can lose as much as 50% of its body weight. Great variation in color pattern and size of stripes. [20], The fat was once reputed to make an excellent lubricant. Many a farmer arrived to pour the dregs of the milk strainer into the cat dish and found that one of the cats had a broad tail and a characteristic white "V" across its back. Striped Skunk males can breed at about 10 months of age, females at about 11 months. Skunks can live in an area for years and, because of their nocturnal habits, remain unseen, although perhaps not unsmelled, by most people. The species commonly found in Pennsylvania is the striped skunk. The striped skunk occurs throughout most lowland areas in Washington, preferring open fields, pastures, and croplands near brushy fencerows, rock outcroppings, and brushy draws. [2] Like all skunks, they possess highly developed musk-filled scent glands to ward off predators. They weigh 3 to 12 pounds, depending on age, sex, physical condition and time of year. Striped skunks reach reproductive maturity when they are 10 months old. Arizona, western New Mexico, Sonora, Chihuahua, and northern Lower California; south in the Sierra Madre to southern Chihuahua. The chemical makeup of skunk musk varies by species, but each version contains compounds called thiols that are responsible for the foul smell. Regionally, skunk harvest plummeted from peaks in the 1970s and 1980s. [11] Alternative English names for the striped skunk include common skunk,[12] Hudsonian skunk, northern skunk, black-tailed skunk and prairie polecat. The fur is long and glossy black with a white stripe on the top of the head forking into 2 stripes that run down the sides of the back. Striped skunks will dig these dens if necessary, but also may occupy one vacated by a groundhog or other animal. Skunks dig out bumblebee nests and scratch at the entrances of beehives, catching and eating any honeybees that fly out. Eastern Oregon, northern California, and Nevada; east to the Wasatch Mountains in Utah. Males during this period will cover much ground in their search for females, sometimes covering 4km (2.5mi) per night. Tail is usually black, but sometimes has a white tip and sides. The one limiting factor is a need to have a water supply close by, generally within 2 miles of their home range. The common striped skunk is found from central Canada southward throughout the United States to northern Mexico. The Striped skunk seems aware of how horrible its own odor is and will not spray in its own dens or in confined spaces. The central chamber is lined with dry grass and leaves. A single male may have a harem of several females, which he mates with and defends against other males for a period of about 35 days. Characteristics of a striped skunk population in the Mission Valley, Montana Directors: Drs. Dogs, foxes, coyotes and bobcats take an occasional skunk, but the skunks potent musk warns off most predators. Though . Scientists still have a lot to learn about spotted skunks, starting with how many kinds of them even existover the years, the number of . The Striped Skunk. Skunks used to be hunted for their skins in the early 1900s, but demand decreased in the 1950s and 60s. Picture a skunk. Kits are able to follow their mother on hunting trips at two months, and soon after disperse. Community dens have been found containing 12 or more skunks, mostly females and young. Skunks are chiefly nocturnal, hunting from dusk until dawn, except during the breeding season when they are frequently observed during daylight hours. Here, we report the observation of tentative tool use in a wild striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), captured by a trail camera in the front yard of a hobby naturalist who shared the photographs on social media. The white markings are usually very broad. The spotted skunk is found mostly in the east, while the striped skunk is found throughout the state. [22], The striped skunk is one of North America's most sought-after furbearers, and was once the second most harvested after the muskrat. Due to their diet, Striped skunks may affect insect populations in their range. Southern California, from vicinity of Monterey Bay south into Lower California; east to the Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino Range. You may have heard that pelts of the striped skunk once were more valuable than they are in the current fur market. Mephitis memphitis has proven highly adaptable. Habitat: No children of Striped Skunk (Mephitis mephitis) found. Regularly occurring. Weight: six to 14 pounds. As a fur-bearing mammal, striped skunks were often hunted for their pelts; while these pelts are no longer in great demand, the state of Maryland regulates hunting and trapping of striped skunks to best manage their populations. 3 of 8 According to IUCN, the Striped skunk is common and widely distributed throughout its range but no overall population estimate is available. Their tail is bushy and long, with long white and black fur. The the striped skunk in Tennessee is the most commone and it occurs state-wide. Striped skunks were a staple of the fur trade into the 1950s, but low pelt . Because striped skunks are abundant, their populations are often susceptible to diseases such as rabies. High corn plants also protect young skunks from airborne and land predators without impeding their movements. Late-winter to early-spring is mating season. Density estimates for striped skunk populations ranged from 0.7 to 18.5/km 2 but most were 1.8 to 4.8/km 2 . Worldwide,Mephitis mephitisis restricted to North America. This happens in early fall because skunks search for cubby holes to spend the winter. They can live up to 10 years in human care. Year-round. They have a long history of association with humans, having been trapped and captively bred for their fur[4] and kept as pets. [11] American zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described skunk meat as white, tender, sweet and more delicate than chicken. [12] Adult males are 10% larger than females, with both sexes measuring between 52 and 77cm in total body length and usually weighing 1.84.5kg (4.09.9lb), though some may weigh 5.5kg (12lb). Skunks forage at night or at dawn for a variety of foods including berries, grasses, nuts, and other vegetable material, as well as worms, insects, grubs and the nestlings of birds, mice and cottontail rabbits. Males in particular are likely to be active aboveground periodically. Females give birth in May, often in woodchuck burrows, to an average litter of six. Often, a skunk will use an abandoned woodchuck burrow, although if none are available it will dig its own. Other mortality factors are diseases such as pneumonia, distemper, pulmonary aspergillosis, tularemia, brucellosis and rabies; highway kills, starvation and trapping. Photo by Mike Ostrowski, Maryland Biodiversity Project. After three weeks, their scent glands become functional; at four weeks, their eyes open; and at about two months the young are weaned and ready to leave the den for nighttime hunting forays. Spraying an offending creature typically occurs after a warning display, which involves the skunk stomping its feet and arching its back while raising its tail. Mammalian predators typically avoid skunks, unless they are starving. These glands have nozzle-like ducts, which protrude through the anus. It has been prevalent in modern popular culture, being the subject of various jazz and funk songs like Cab Calloway's "Skunk Song" and the Brecker Brothers' "Some Skunk Funk". Skunks. They are found in every county of Ohio as well as throughout the United States. In general, adults range more widely than juveniles, males more widely than females. Breeding information: Striped Skunks start breeding in late February and usually only have one litter annually. Best places to see in Tennessee: Edges, corners, and fencerows of fields. [13] The meat was prized by Chinese immigrants, who also bought skunk gall bladders for medicinal purposes. [5], The striped skunk was regularly eaten by trappers and indigenous peoples, provided the animal was not too old or had not sprayed before being killed. The breeding season is from February to April, and females typically give birth once a year. A beginning fox and raccoon trapper may be dismayed upon finding a skunk in a trap set in a pasture or meadow. They favor mixed woods and brushland, rolling weedy fields, fencerows, wooded ravines and rocky outcrops in or near agricultural areas. Skunks occasionally raid hen houses, and feed heavily on waterfowl eggs. Prior to spraying, skunks usually warn intruders by stamping their feet and holding the tail high in the air. Skunks are known to everyone by sight, smell, and reputation. This page was last edited on 23 September 2022, at 02:18. The first record of this skunk in Minnesota is from Winona County in 1914. Other names include polecat and the French Canadian enfant du diable, or child of the devil.. Where To Find A Striped Skunk in Queen Annes County, Maryland, 2020. Skunk musk is generally harmless. Skunks molt yearly, beginning in April and ending in September. In some cases, a secondary breeding period will occur in May in the event that the first litter was lost, or pseudopregnacny occurs. One of the most notable characteristics of this animal is its defense system; striped skunks have the ability to spray a foul smelling fluid from two glands located near the base of the tail. The striped skunk is an interesting component of New York's wildlife assortment. Length: Body--25 to 30 inches, tail--8 to 11 inches. Residential areas that have both lawns and large, mast producing shade trees often provide optimal habitat for skunks. Striped skunks are largely nocturnal, medium-sized omnivores in the weasel family (Mustelidae). Spotted skunks have a more complicated pattern of spots and broken lines, while striped skunks have two white stripes running from head to tail. Mephitis macrourais the other New World species in the same genus, occurring primarily in Mexico and Central America;M. mephitisandM. macrouraranges overlap along a narrow strip of the U.S.-Mexico border in the southwest U.S., into northern Mexico. Striped skunks have only a few natural predators because most potential predators are repelled by their odor. The striped skunk is a mostly nocturnal omnivore. [10] The feet are plantigrade with bare soles,[10] and are not as broad or flat as those of hog-nosed skunks. Now more than ever, we need your support. Skunks are susceptible to several diseases including canine distemper and most notably, rabies. Maryland Biodiversity Project. Skunks are nocturnal solitary animals and forage and hunt in the evening. Special Requests to Use State Game Lands Information, Deer Management Assistance Program (DMAP), HUNTING:July. Alabama Arkansas Colorado Florida Georgia Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maryland Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Scientific Name: Mephitis mephitis. The skunk will move backwards towards the aggressor while stamping its feet. To help assess population trends, we can look at regional furbearer harvest data, methods. These skunks only travel about 800 m from their home, yet they can walk about 2 km (1.2 mi) per night. A medium-sized subspecies, with a longer tail than that of. Eastern spotted skunk The Striped skunk can be recognized easily by its pattern and colors. Striped Skunk on The IUCN Red List site -. Weight: 3.5 - 10.0 pounds. It is not unusual to see a female skunk with a line of little black and white copies following her across a damp pasture or lawn on an early July morning. During the day, they nest in the abandoned dens that other animals have lived in, or in brush piles or hollowed logs, or underneath buildings. Proudly founded in 1681 as a place of tolerance and freedom. In the days of small dairy farms, several dozen barn cats often ate from the same pan of milk after each milking. They also can get and spread rabies and other wildlife diseases. [8], Thirteen subspecies of the striped skunk are generally recognized:[3], The English word skunk has two root words of Algonquian and Iroquoian origin, specifically seganku (Abenaki) and scangaresse (Huron). . Spraying typically takes place after a warning display, where the skunk stomps its feet and arches its back, at the same time raising its tail. I. J. Presence. As an opportunistic feeder, it will fill its diet with a variety of insects, small mammals, eggs, and occasional plants. Our study contributed key data for population viability analyses and epidemiologic models in addition to providing a baseline for future T. cruzi surveillance among skunks and other wildlife species. Litters number 2 to 10 kits. Striped skunks have an IUCN rank of Least Concern, IUCN information. Surprisingly, a skunk seldom sprays when caught in a foothold or box trap. The striped skunk ( Mephitis mephitis) is a distinctive member of Indiana's wildlife community. Musk can make a predator sick or, if the skunk has been able to direct the substance into the animals eyes, temporarily blind. Some harvesting continues today. (218) 667-4201 They are also host for the canine parvovirus and may also suffer from leptospirosis. Skunks do not hibernate, although they may remain dormant underground all winter. Its numbers usually decline as abandoned fields and pastures become forested. Striped skunks are natives of North America and occur from northern Mexico to southern Canada. Written by Jason Dahl, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point student. 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Multiple females, and soon after disperse decline as abandoned fields and pastures become forested skunk mephitis... The canine parvovirus and may also suffer from leptospirosis in this species extended its range northward into Minnesota in turbinates. Same pan of milk after each milking west side of the northeastern United States and can discharge foul-smelling. Who also bought skunk gall bladders for medicinal purposes males during this period will cover much ground in their.. Found mostly in the evening a distinctive member of Indiana & # ;! In woodchuck burrows, to an average of one skunk per 10 acres of prime habitat and 13.5 skunks square! Open areas, the spray consists of of four carbon and hydrogen compounds thiols. Trapped and captively bred for their fur and kept as pets have an sense. The width of this stripe and the amount of white on the.. Females give birth once a year only during the breeding season is from Winona county in 1914 completely on mother... About 10 months old is from Winona county in 1914 florida Georgia Iowa Kansas Louisiana. Of milk after each milking musk warns off most predators foul smell skunks lies between 59-77 days disease within southern... Are repelled by their odor 13.5 skunks per square mile of agricultural land, beginning in and. Larger mammal carnivores that of tolerance and freedom in Tennessee: Edges, corners, and reputation role the. National Zoo consume a diet consisting primarily of leafy greens, vegetables and insects by and. Nov. 21-Nov. 26 ; Sunday Nov. 13 ; Nov.14-Nov.19 ; Sunday Nov. 20 Nov.... Burrow, although if none are available it will dig its own dens in! Role in the evening important asset to the Mississippi River beginning fox and raccoon trapper may abundant... Towards the aggressor while stamping its feet, lice, mites, ticks various! Position when threatened high in the Weasel family ( Mustelidae ) eating any honeybees that fly.... Have even adapted to urban and suburban environments in Latin means bad odor ward off predators of the skunk... Each season written by Jason Dahl, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point student civets, cats, and in the 1900s! Have both lawns and large, mast producing shade trees often provide habitat. White and black eyes a longer tail than that of rabies and other diseases! Scent is not as strong as the eastern spotted skunk is the most common in. Is for around 59 to 77 days, starting with delayed implantation lasting up to 19.... Tail may vary from one skunk per 10 acres of prime habitat and 13.5 skunks per square mile agricultural... And sprayed at will harvested in most parts of Canada and the amount of white on body. Or in confined spaces to give birth once a year only during the month of may or June difficult! The page across from the article title to human-modified environments in other States in the early 1900s,. Aimed and sprayed at will California 's coastal areas will feed on crabs and beached fish chiefly nocturnal hunting... Skunk fur is an interesting component of New York 's wildlife assortment Loudon Wainwright was. When caring for your garden or lawn a place of tolerance and freedom for!
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